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HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES
Contents
1 Hydrological cycle and precipitation
Process
Introduction
Hydrological cycle
Run off process
Conceptual model of hydrological cycle
Hydrological cycle in India
World inventory of water resources
Elements of meteorology
Solar radiation
Temperature
Humidity
Wind
Atmospheric circulation
Precipitation- its forms and types
Snow-pack and snow-melt
Response of a catchment
Hydrological data
Most frequently needed data
Essential requirements of a data
Synthetic generation of hydrological data
Indian data sources
Questions and problems
2 Statistics applied to hydrology
Introduction
Time series
Graphical curve fitting
Trend
Double mass curve
Methods for analysis of time series
Processing of hydrological data
Rejection of data-outlier points
Basic concepts related to probability curves
Theoretical frequency distribution
Probability
Ungrouped data and plotting univariate distribution
Types of probability functions
Recurrence interval
Theoretical models of probability
Models of discrete random variables
Models of continuous random variables
Length of record
Selection of a design event
Determination of permissible risk
Summary
Questions and problems
3 Precipitation
Introduction
Measurement of point precipitation
Types of rain gauges
Radar measurement of precipitation
Satellite measurement of rainfall
Errors in precipitation measurements
Precipitation data
Precipitation gauge network
Estimating missing precipitation
Consistency of records
Wet and dry cycles
Precipitation analysis and its presentation
Depth-time graph
Distribution graph
Mass curve and intensity duration curves
Dimensionless mass curve
Intensity-duration-frequency analysis of point rain-fall
Theoretical probability distribution curves
Station year method
Mean precipitation over a basin
Depth-area curves
Depth-area-duration curves
Probable maximum precipitation
Methods to compute PMP
World’s greatest rainfalls
Precipitation characteristics in INDIA
Seasons
Annual rainfall over India
Questions and problems
4 Water abstractions
Introduction
Evaporation from
Water surfaces
Energy budget method
Combination method
Control of reservoir evaporation
Transpiration
Soil evaporation
Evaportanspiration
Empirical formulae to determine PET
Interception losses
Depression storage
Watershed leakage
Infiltration
Factors affecting infiltration capacity
Methods of measuring infiltration capacity
Infiltrometer method
Hydrograph analysis
Mathematical expressions for infiltration process
Infiltration indices
Questions and problems
5 Run off and stream flow measurements
Introduction
Factors affecting run off
Climatic factors
Stream flow measurements
Location of a gauging station
Instruments for measuring stage
Discharge measurements
Use of artificial or natural control structures
Measurement of total volumes
Slope-area method
Velocity-area method
Dilation methods of stream flow measurements
Other methods
Stage discharge curve
Determination of stage-discharge curve
Extension of gauge-discharge curve for low discharge
Regions
Establishment of stage discharge curve in back water
Reach
Extension methods
Stream gauge network
Questions and problems
6 Hydrographs
Hydrograph analysis
Methods of separation
Arbitrary methods of flow separation
Flow separation by ground water depletion curves
Analysis of complex hydrographs
Recession curve of direct run off
Time base of hydrograph
Unit hydrograph
Assumptions
Construction of unit hydrograph
Limitation of unit hydrograph
Limitation of unit hydrograph
Summation curves
Determination of U.H.from a complex storm
Determination of unit hydrograph from complex
Storms by matrix method
Distribution graph
Synthetic unit hydrographs
Definitions
Dimensionless unit hydrograph
Formulae relating hydrographs to basin characteristics
Instantaneous unit hydrograph
Conceptual IUH
Relation between DUH and IUH
Nash’s conceptual model
Table of gamma function
Clark’s model of deriving IUH
Questions and problems
7 Ground water
Introduction
Vertical distribution of ground water
Aquifer and related definition terms
Other definitions
Darcy’s law
Dupit-forcheimmer assumptions
Illustrations
Steady flow to a well
Steady state discharge from an extensive confined
Aquifer
Steady state discharge from an unconfined aquifer
Transient flow to a well
Confined aquifer
Unconfined aquifer
Determination of formation constants
Questions and problems
8 Reservoir capacity and operation
Introduction
Classification of reservoirs
Site selection for reservoirs
Site investigations
General definitions
Determination of live storage capacity
Superimposition of hydrographs of stream inflow and demand
Mass curve method
Determination of reservoir yield
Reservoir sedimentation
Sediment transport by stream
Sediment deposit in the reservoir
Sediment inflow rate
Trap efficiency
Density of sediment deposit
Reservoir sedimentation surveys
Suspended load measurements
Sediment distribution in reservoir
Useful life of reservoirs
Reservoir sedimentation control
Reservoir operation
Single purpose conservation reservoirs
Single purpose flood control reservoirs
Multipurpose reservoirs
Questions and problems
9 Floods and flood control
Introduction
Floods in Indian river systems
Design flood
Flood estimated
Rational method
Empirical methods
Unit hydrograph method
Flood frequency studies
Flood frequency studies
Flood control measures
Classification
Levees and flood walls
Channel improvement
Floodways
Flood plain management
Flood forecasting
Flood forecasting
Flood forecasting
Flood routing through reservoirs
Pul’s method
Miscellaneous method for hydrologic routing
Questions and problems
10 Water use in irrigation and power
Importance of efficient water use for irrigation
Basic terms and explanations
Pertaining to soil and water
Pertaining to crop and water
Pertaining to irrigation on land
Application of irrigation water
Timing of irrigation
Estimation of consumptive use
Irrigation requirements of crops
Measurement of effective rainfall
Ground water contribution
Water losses in canals evaporation loss
Seepage loss
Water saving methods
Canal linings
Sprinkler irrigation
Drip irrigation
Drip irrigation
Conjunctive use of surface and ground waters
Importance of hydropower development
Basic power terms
Types of hydroelectric power plants
Run-off-river plants
Dam power plants
Diversion canal plants
Pumped storage plants
Hydropower calculations
Components of hydropower plants
Head race, intake conduct
Forebay
Surge tanks
Power house
Draft tube and tail race
Questions and problems
11 Engineering economy in flood control projects
Introduction
Approach to engineering economic study
Basic definitions
Discounting formulae
Compound amount formula
Present worth formula
Capital recovery formula
Series present worth formula
Discounting methods
Present worth method
Rate of return method
Annual cost method
Benefit cost method
Economics of flood control
Production function
Objective function
Optimality criteria
Principles of project optimality
Economic analysis of combined project
Estimating flood damages
Estimating flood control benefits
Questions and problems
12 Water resources project planning
Introduction
Investigations in project planning
Statement of objectives
Planning data requirement and collection
Projection for future
Project formulation
Project evaluation
Multipurpose project planning
Requirements of uses in multi-purpose projects
Compatibility of multi-purpose uses
Drawbacks in project planning
Systems approach in water resources planning
General definitions and concepts
Optimization techniques in water systems planning
Questions and problems
13 DAMS
Introduction
Classification
Classification of dams
Based on function
Based on hydraulic design
Based on materials of construction
Choice of type of dam
Selection of dam site
Site investigations
Reconnaissance survey
Preliminary investigations
Final investigations
Sub-surface investigations
Principle methods
Supplementary methods
Questions and problems
14 Gravity dams
Introduction
Forces acting on gravity dams
Self weight of dam
Hydrostatic pressure
Uplift pressure
Earthquake pressure
Ice pressure
Wave pressure
Silt pressure
Reaction of foundations
Principal and shear stresses
Stability criteria of gravity dams
Causes of failure
Stability requirement
Elementary profile of a gravity dam
Calculation of base width
Stresses developed in the elementary profile
Limiting height of dam
Practical profile of gravity dam
Analysis of gravity dam
Step-by-step method
Overflow gravity dams
Shape of crest
Construction of gravity dams
Galleries in dams
Questions and problems
15 Arch and buttress dams
Introduction
Classification of arch dams
Principles of arch dam design
Arch dam design methods
Cylindrical method
Limitations of the cylindrical method
Trial load method
Elastic analysis theory
Elastic shell theory
Finite element method
Buttress dams
Types of buttress dams
Flat slab or ambersen dam
Multiple arch dam
Miscellaneous types
Forces and stresses in buttress dams
Principles of design
Questions and problems
16 Earth dams
Introduction
Components of earth dams and their functions
Earth dam classification
Rolled fill dams
Hydraulic fill dams
Homogenous earth dam
Zoned earth dam
Diaphragm type of earth dam
Flow net analysis
Seepage theory
Significance of Laplace equation
Forchheirmer graphical analysis
Properties of flow net curves
Phreatic line in zoned earth dam
Pore pressure
Determination of phreatic line
Casagrande’s graphical method
Casagrande method for embankment
With inclined
Discharge face (without filter)
Analytical method for embankment with inclined discharge face (without filter)
Slope stability analysis
Slip circle method
Method of slices
Rectangular plot method
Stability of upstream slope rapid drawdown
Slope stability during rapid drawdown
Slope stability during construction
Failure of earth dams
Hydraulic failures
Seepage failures
Structural failures
Failure due to earthquakes
Design considerations in earth dams
Design criteria
Embankment design
Design considerations in seismic regions
Slope protection
Drainage system in earth dam
Drainage system for embankment
Filter design criteria
Horizontal drainage blankets and filters
Rock toe
Inclined drainage filter
Chimney drain
Drainage system for foundations
Impervious cut off
Upstream blanket
Drainage trench
Pressure relief wells
Construction of earth dam
Site preparation
Diversion and coffer damming
Foundation preparation
Grouting
Excavation
Fill placement
Soil compaction
Rock-fill dams
Impervious membrane rockfill dam
Earth-core type rockfill dam
Questions and problems
Appendices
Index