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SURVEYING & LEVELING
Contents
1.Introduction
Plans and maps
Applications of surveying
Primary division in surveying
Classification of surveying
Measurements
Units of measurements
Scales
Types of graphical scales
Vernier scale
Special forms of verniers
Shrunk scale
Methods of locating a point in plain
Survey with respect to two reference points
Principles of surveying
Survey of India and topological maps
Phases of works in surveying
Questions
2 Errors in surveying
Types of errors
Sources of errors
Most probable value of accidental error
Errors in the computed quantities
Accuracy in measurement
Relative accuracy between linear and
Angular measurements
Significant figures and rounding off figures
Questions
3 Measurement of horizontal distances using chain and tape
Approximate methods of distance measurements
Measurements by chaining
Types of chains
Advantages and disadvantages of
Chain over steel band
Testing and adjustment of chains
Tapes
Accessories required for horizontal
Measurements
Ranging a survey line
Chaining a horizontal line
Measurement of distances on
Sloping ground
Precise measurement/base line
Measurement
Errors in chaining
Chain and tape corrections
Questions
4 Chain surveying
Testing a triangle for its condition
Network of triangles
Selection of stations
Offsets
Setting out perpendicular offsets
Allowable length of offset
Equipment required for chain survey
Field work
Plotting a chain survey
Conventional symbols and colours
Problems in chaining
Obstacles in chaining
Cross staff survey
Traversing with chain and type only
Questions
5 Angle and direction measurements with compass
Compass
Differences between prismatic compass
And surveyor’s compass
Working and use of compass
Magnetic bearing and true bearing
Whole circle bearing and quadrantal bearing system
Magnetic dip
Magnetic declination
Fore bearing and back bearing
Computation of angles from bearings
Computation of bearings if bearing
Of a line and included angles are given
Local attraction
Personal errors
Testing and adjusting the compass
Questions
6 Compass surveying
Accessories for compass survey
Fiels work
Check in compass survey
Plotting
Closing error and its adjustment
Errors in compass survey
Limits of precision
Omitted measurements
Questions
7 Plane table surveying
Plane table and its accessories
Working operations
Methods of plane tabling
Required accuracy in centring
Errors in plane table surveying
Advantages and limitations of plane table survey
8 Levelling
Definition of basic terms used in leveling
Methods of leveling
Leveling instruments
Types of levels
Tripod for the level
Leveling staff
Relative merits of self reading and target staffs
Working principle of telescope
Parts of telescope
Advantages and disadvantages of internal
Focusing telescope
Fundamental axes of a level
Temporary adjustments of a level
Principles of direct leveling
Terms used in leveling
Types of leveling
Simple of leveling
Simple leveling
Differential leveling
Fly leveling
\profile leveling
Cross-sectioning
Hand signals during leveling
Effect of curvature
Effects of refraction
Distance of visible horizon
Balancing backsights and force sights
Reciprocal leveling
Difficulties in leveling
Level tube and its sensitivity
Errors in leveling
Degree of precision
Barometric leveling
Hypsometry
Additional problems
Questions
9 Contouring
Contour intervals
Characteristics of contours
Methods of contouring
Direct method of contouring
Indirect contouring
Interpolation of contours
Drawing contours
Contour gradient
Uses of contour maps
Questions
10 Theodolite surveying
Main parts of a vernier theodolite
Technical terms associated with
Measurement with theodolite
Fundamental axes of theodolite
Temporary adjustments of a theodolite
Measurement of horizontal angle
Measurement of horizontal angle by
Repetition method
Measurement of horizontal angle by
Method of reiteration
Measurement of vertical angle
Field operations with theodolite
Theodlite traversing
Plotting and adjusting chosing error
Trigonometric leveling
Errors in theodolite surveying
Good practices in theodolite survey
Additional problems on theodolite survey
Questions
11 Trigonometric leveling
Base of the object accessible
Base of object inaccessible-single plane
Method possible
Base of the object inaccessible –double
Plane method is necessary
Height of an elevated object above
The ground if its base is also visible
Questions
12 permanent adjustment of dumpy level and theodolite
Required permanent adjustments in dumpy level
First adjustment of dumpy level
Adjustment of dumpy level
Adjustment of cross hair ring
Third adjustment of dumpy level
Adjustment of line of sight /collimation
Required permanent adjustment in theodolite
First adjustment of theodolite
Adjustment of plate level
Second adjustment of theodolite
Adjustment of horizontal axis
Third adjustment (adjustment of cross hairs)
Fourth adjustment and fifth adjustments
Adjustment of altitude level and vertical index frame
Questions
13 Computation of areas
Methods of computation of areas
Computation areas from form field notes
Computation of areas of regular figures
Areas from offsets at regular intervals
Areas from offsets at irregular intervals
Computation of area from latitudes and departures
Area by coordinates
Computing areas from maps
Graphical methods of computing area from maps
Mechanical methods for computing area of a plan
Amsler polar planimeter
Theory of palnimeter
Questions
14 Computation of volumes
Computation of earthwork from cross-sections
Formula for computing areas of cross-sections
Cross-sectional areas in filling
Equations for volume of simple solids
Computation of volume by trapezoidal rule
Computation of volume by prismoidal rule
Computation of earthwork from spot levels
Computation of volume from contours
15 Minor instruments
Hand level
Burel hand level
Clinometers
The sextants
Pentograph
Questions
Index