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Technology of Dairy and Sea food
Contents
Part I
Milk
Chapter 1Milk: Main Characteristics
1Composition and Structure
Principal Components
1.1.2 Structural Elements
1.2Milk Formation
1.3Some Properties of Milk
1.4Variability
1.5Changes
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Chapter 2
Milk Components
2.1Lactose
2.1.1 Chemical Properties.
2.1.2 Nutritional Aspects
2.1.3 Physicochemical Aspects
2.2
Salts........
2.2.1 Composition and Distribution among the Phases
2.2.2 Properties of the Salt Solution
2.2.3 Colloidal Calcium Phosphate
2.2.4 Nutritional Aspects
2.2.5 Changes in Salts
2.3Lipids
2.3.1 Constituent Fatty Acids
2.3.2 Lipid Classes
2.3.3 Nutritional Aspects
2.3.4 Autoxidation
2.3.5 Triglyceride Crystallization
2.4
Proteins
2.4.1 Chemistry of Proteins
2.4.2 Survey of Milk Proteins
2.4.3 Serum Proteins
2.4.4 Casein
2.4.5 Nutritional Aspects
Enzymes
2.5.1 Enzyme Activity
2.5.2 Some Milk Enzymes
2.5.3 Inactivation
2.6Other Components
2.6.1 Natural Components
2.6.2 Contaminants
2.6.3 Radionuclides
2.7Variability
2.7.1 Sources of Variability
2.7.2 Nature of the Variation
2.7.3 Some Important Variables
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Chapter 3
Colloidal Particles of Milk
3.1Basic Aspects
3.1.1 Surface Phenomena
3.1.2 Colloidal Interactions
3.1.3 Aggregation
3.1.4 Size Distributions
3.2Fat Globules
3.2.1 Properties
3.2.2 Emulsion Stability
3.2.3 Interactions with Air Bubbles
3.2.4 Creaming
3.2.5 Lipolysis
3.3Casein Micelles
3.3.1 Description
3.3.2 Changes
3.3.3 Colloidal Stability
3.3.4 Gel Formation and Properties
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Chapter 4
Milk Properties
4.1Solution Properties
4.2Acidity
4.3Redox Potential
4.4Flavor
4.5Density
4.6
Optical Properties
4.7Viscosity
4.7.1 Some Fluid Rheology
4.7.2 Liquid Milk Products
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Chapter 5
Microbiology of Milk
5.1General Aspects
5.1.1 Microorganisms
5.1.2 Bacteria
5.1.3 Yeasts and Molds
5.1.4 Enumeration of Microorganisms
5.1.5 Growth
5.1.6 Milk as a Substrate for Microorganisms
5.2Undesirable Microorganisms
5.2.1 Pathogenic Microorganisms
5.2.2 Spoilage Microorganisms
5.3Sources of Contamination
5.3.1 Microbial Ecology
5.3.2 Microorganisms Present in the Udder
5.3.3 Contamination during and after Milking
5.4Hygienic Measures
5.4.1 Protection of the Consumer against
Pathogenic Microorganisms
5.4.2 Measures against Spoilage Organisms
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Part II
Processes
Chapter 6
General Aspects of Processing
6.1Introduction
6.2Preservation Methods
6.3Quality Assurance
6.3.1 Concepts
6.3.2 Hazard Analysis/Critical Control Points (HACCP)
6.3.3 Quality Assurance of Raw Milk
6.4Milk Storage and Transport
6.4.1 Milk Collection and Reception
6.4.2 Milk Storage
6.4.3 Transport of Milk in the Dairy
6.5Standardizing
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Chapter 7
Heat Treatment
7.1Objectives
7.2Changes Caused by Heating
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
7.2.1 Overview of Changes
7.2.2 Reactions of Proteins
7.2.3 Reactions of Lactose
7.2.4 Heat Coagulation
7.3Heating Intensity
7.3.1 Processes of Different Intensity
7.3.2 Kinetic Aspects
7.3.4 Thermobacteriology
7.4Methods of Heating
7.4.1 Considerations
7.4.2 Equipment
7.4.3 Heat Regeneration
7.4.4 Control
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Chapter 8
Centrifugation
8.1Cream Separation
8.2Removal of Particles
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Chapter 9
Homogenization
9.1Objectives
9.2Operation of the Homogenizer
9.3Effects of Turbulence
9.4Factors Affecting Fat Globule Size
9.5Surface Layers
9.6Colloidal Stability
9.7Homogenization Clusters
9.8Creaming
9.9Other Effects of Homogenization
9.10 Other Ways of Working
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Chapter 10
Concentration Processes
10.1 General Aspects
10.1.1 Concentration of Solutes
10.1.2 Water Activity
10.1.3 Changes Caused by Concentrating
10.1.4 The Glassy State
10.1.5 Reaction Rates
10.2 Evaporating
10.3 Drying: General Aspects
10.3.1 Objectives
10.3.2 Drying Methods
10.4 Spray Drying
10.4.1 Drier Configuration
10.4.2 Atomization
10.4.3 Change of State of the Drying Air
10.4.4 Changes of State of the Drying Droplets
10.4.5 Two-Stage Drying
Suggested Literature
Chapter 11
Cooling and Freezing
11.1 Cooling
11.2 Freezing
Suggested Literature
Chapter 12
Membrane Processes
12.1 General Aspects
12.1.1 Types of Processes
12.1.2 Efficiency
12.1.3 Technical Operation
12.2 Ultrafiltration
12.2.1 Composition of the Retentate
12.2.2 Permeate Flux
12.3 Reverse Osmosis
12.4 Desalting
Suggested Literature
Chapter 13
Lactic Fermentations
13.1 Lactic Acid Bacteria
13.1.1 Taxonomy
13.1.2 Metabolism
13.1.3 Genetics
13.1.4 Bacteriocins
13.2 Acid Production
13.3 Bacteriophages
13.3.1 Phage Composition and Structure
13.3.2 Phage Multiplication
13.3.3 Phage Resistance Mechanisms
13.3.4 Inactivation
13.4 Ecological Aspects
13.5 Starters
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
13.5.1 Composition
13.5.2 Properties
13.5.3 Shifts in Flora
13.5.4 Traditional Starter Manufacture
13.5.5 Modern Starter Manufacture
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Chapter 14
Fouling and Sanitizing
14.1 Deposit Formation
14.2 Cleaning
14.3 Disinfection
Suggested Literature
Chapter 15
Packaging
15.1 Distribution Systems
15.2 Packaging Materials
15.3 Filling Operation
Suggested Literature
Chapter -16
Milk for Liquid Consumption
16.1 Pasteurized Milk
16.1.1 Manufacture
16.1.2 Shelf Life
16.1.3 Extended-Shelf-Life Milk
16.2 Sterilized Milk
16.2.1 Description
16.2.2 Methods of Manufacture
16.2.3 Shelf Life
16.3 Reconstituted Milks
16.4 Flavor
16.5 Nutritive Value
16.5.1 Modification of Composition
16.5.2 Loss of Nutrients
16.6 Infant Formulas
16.6.1 Human Milk
16.6.2 Formula Composition and Manufacture
Suggested Literature
Chapter 17
Cream Products
17.1 Sterilized Cream
17.1.1 Manufacture
17.1.2 Heat Stability
17.1.3 Stability in Coffee
17.1.4 Clustering
17.2 Whipping Cream
17.2.1 Desirable Properties
17.2.2 Manufacture
17.2.3 The Whipping Process
17.3 Ice Cream
17.3.1 Manufacture
17.3.2 Physical Structure: Formation and Stability
17.3.3 Role of the Various Components
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Chapter 18
Butter
18.1 Description
18.2 Manufacture
18.2.1 Processing Scheme
18.2.2 The Churning Process
18.2.3 Working
18.3 Properties
18.3.1 Microstructure.
18.3.2 Consistency
18.3.3 Cold Storage Defects
18.4 Cultured Butter from Sweet Cream
18.5 High-Fat Products
18.5.1 Anhydrous Milk Fat
18.5.2 Modification of Milk Fat
18.5.3 Recombined Butter
18.5.4 Low-Fat Butter Products
Suggested Literature
Chapter 19
Concentrated Milks
19.1 Evaporated Milk
19.1.1 Manufacture
19.1.2 Product Properties
19.1.3 Heat Stability
19.1.4 Creaming
19.1.5 Age Thickening and Gelation
19.2 Sweetened Condensed Milk
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
19.2.1 Manufacture
19.2.2 Keeping Quality
Suggested Literature .
Chapter 20
Milk Powder
20.1 Objectives
20.2 Manufacture
20.3 Hygienic Aspects
20.3.1 Bacteria in the Original Milk
20.3.2 Growth during Manufacture
20.3.3 Incidental Contamination
20.3.4 Sampling and Checking
20.4 Powder Characteristics
20.4.1 The Particle.
20.4.2 Extractable Fat
20.4.3 Free-Flowingness
20.4.4 Specific Volume
20.4.5 Dissolution
20.4.6 WPN Index
20.4.7 Flavor
20.4.8 Conclusions
20.5 Deterioration
20.6 Other Types of Milk Powder
Suggested Literature
Chapter 21
Protein Preparations
21.1 Manufacture
21.1.1 Casein
21.1.2 Whey Protein
21.1.3 Other Products
21.2 Functional Properties
21.2.1 Solution Properties
21.2.2 Gels
21.2.3 Emulsions
21.2.4 Foams
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Chapter 22
Fermented Milks
22.1 General Aspects
22.2 Types of Fermented Milks
22.2.1 Mesophilic Fermentation
22.2.2 Thermophilic Fermentation
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
22.2.3 Yeast–Lactic Fermentation
22.2.4 Molds in Lactic Fermentation
22.3 Cultured Buttermilk
22.4 Yogurt
22.4.1 The Yogurt Bacteria
22.4.2 Manufacture
22.4.3 Physical Properties
22.4.4 Flavor Defects and Shelf Life
22.5 Nutritional Aspects
22.5.1 Composition
22.5.2 Nutritional Value
22.5.3 Probiotics
22.5.4 Prebiotics
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Part IV
Cheese
Chapter 23
Principles of Cheese Making
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Essential Process Steps
23.3 Changes Occurring
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Chapter 24
Cheese Manufacture
24.1 Milk Properties and Pretreatment
24.1.1 The Raw Milk
24.1.2 Milk Treatment
24.2 Starters
24.3 Enzyme-Induced Clotting
24.3.1 Enzymes Used
24.3.2 The Enzyme-Catalyzed Reaction
24.3.3 Aggregation
24.3.4 Gel Formation
24.3.5 The Renneting Time
24.3.6 Clotting of Heat-Treated Milk
24.4 Curd Making
24.4.1 Clotting
24.4.2 Accumulation of Various Components
24.4.3 Concentrating before Clotting
24.4.4 Syneresis
24.4.5 Acid Production and Washing
24.4.6 Separation of Curd and Whey
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
24.5 Shaping and Pressing
24.6 Salting
24.6.1 Mass Transport during Salting
24.6.2 Important Variables
24.6.3 Distribution of Salt and Water after Salting
24.7 Curing, Storage, and Handling
24.7.1 Temperature
24.7.2 Air Conditions
24.7.3 Rind Treatment
24.7.4 Packaging
24.8 Cheese Composition and Yield
24.8.1 Variables Involved
24.8.2 Yield
24.8.3 Standardizing the Milk
Suggested Literature
Chapter 25
Cheese Ripening and Properties
25.1 Lactic Fermentation
25.2 Enzyme Sources
25.3 Proteolysis
25.3.1 Methods of Characterization
25.3.2 Milk Proteinases
25.3.3 Clotting Enzymes
25.3.4 Enzymes of Lactic Acid Bacteria
25.3.5 Enzymes of Nonstarter Organisms
25.3.6 Interaction between Enzyme Systems
25.3.7 Ultrafiltration of Cheese Milk
25.4 Lipolysis
25.5 Development of Flavor
25.5.1 Description
25.5.2 Formation of Flavor Compounds
25.6 Development of Texture
25.6.1 Structure
25.6.2 Consistency
25.7 Accelerated Ripening
25.8 Nutritive Value and Safety
Suggested Literature .
Chapter 26
Microbial Defects
26.1 Coliform Bacteria
26.2 Butyric Acid Bacteria
26.3
Lactobacilli
26.4 Heat-Resistant
Streptococci
Propionic acid bacteria
Organisms on the rind
Other aspects
Suggested literature
27 Cheese varieties
Overview
Variations in manufacture
Types of cheese
Fresh cheese
Quarg
Cottage cheese
Gouda-type cheese
Manufacture
Properties and defects
Cheddar-type cheese
Manufacture
Properties
Swiss and pasta-filata types
Emmentaler
Mozzarella
Cheeses with a specific flora
Soft cheese with surface flora
Blue-veined cheese
Suggested literature