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DAIRY TECHNOLOGY
Contents
Part I
Milk
Chapter 1
Milk: Main Characteristics
1.1 Composition and Structure
1.1.1 Principal Components
1.1.2 Structural Elements
1.2 Milk Formation
1.3 Some Properties of Milk
1.4 Variability
1.5 Changes
Suggested Literature
Chapter 2
Milk Components
2.1Lactose
2.1.1 Chemical Properties
2.1.2 Nutritional Aspects
2.1.3 Physicochemical Aspects
2.2 Salts
2.2.1 Composition and Distribution among the Phases
2.2.2 Properties of the Salt Solution
2.2.3 Colloidal Calcium Phosphate
2.2.4 Nutritional Aspects
2.2.5 Changes in Salts
2.3Lipids
2.3.1 Constituent Fatty Acids
2.3.2 Lipid Classes
2.3.3 Nutritional Aspects
2.3.4 Autoxidation
2.3.5 Triglyceride Crystallization
2.4 Proteins
2.4.1 Chemistry of Proteins
2.4.2 Survey of Milk Proteins
2.4.3 Serum Proteins
2.4.4 Casein
2.4.5 Nutritional Aspects
2.5 Enzymes
2.5.1 Enzyme Activity
2.5.2 Some Milk Enzymes
2.5.3 Inactivation
2.6 Other Components
2.6.1 Natural Components
2.6.2 Contaminants
2.6.3 Radionuclides
2.7 Variability
2.7.1 Sources of Variability
2.7.2 Nature of the Variation
2.7.3 Some Important Variables
Suggested Literature
Chapter 3
Colloidal Particles of Milk
3.1 Basic Aspects
3.1.1 Surface Phenomena
3.1.2 Colloidal Interactions
3.1.3 Aggregation
3.1.4 Size Distributions
3.2 Fat Globules
3.2.1 Properties
3.2.2 Emulsion Stability
3.2.3 Interactions with Air Bubbles
3.2.4 Creaming
3.2.5 Lipolysis
3.3 Casein Micelles
3.3.1 Description
3.3.2 Changes
3.3.3 Colloidal Stability
3.3.4 Gel Formation and Properties
Suggested
Chapter 4
Milk Properties
4.1 Solution Properties
4.2 Acidity
4.3 Redox Potential
4.4 Flavor
4.5 Density
4.6 Optical Properties
4.7 Viscosity
4.7.1 Some Fluid Rheology
4.7.2 Liquid Milk Products
Suggested Literature
Chapter 5
Microbiology of Milk
5.1 General Aspects
5.1.1 Microorganisms
5.1.2 Bacteria
5.1.3 Yeasts and Molds
5.1.4 Enumeration of Microorganisms
5.1.5 Growth
5.1.6 Milk as a Substrate for Microorganisms
5.2 Undesirable Microorganisms
5.2.1 Pathogenic Microorganisms
5.2.2 Spoilage Microorganisms
5.3 Sources of Contamination
5.3.1 Microbial Ecology
5.3.2 Microorganisms Present in the Udder
5.3.3 Contamination during and after Milking
5.4 Hygienic Measures
5.4.1 Protection of the Consumer against Pathogenic Microorganisms
5.4.2 Measures against Spoilage Organisms
Suggested Literature
Part II
Processes
Chapter 6
General Aspects of Processing
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Preservation Methods
6.3 Quality Assurance
6.3.1 Concepts
6.3.2 Hazard Analysis/Critical Control Points (HACCP)
6.3.3 Quality Assurance of Raw Milk
6.4Milk Storage and Transport
6.4.1 Milk Collection and Reception
6.4.2 Milk Storage
6.4.3 Transport of Milk in the Dairy
6.5 Standardizing
Suggested Literature
Chapter 7
Heat Treatment
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Changes Caused by Heating
7.2.1 Overview of Changes
7.2.2 Reactions of Proteins
7.2.3 Reactions of Lactose
7.2.4 Heat Coagulation
7.3 Heating Intensity
7.3.1 Processes of Different Intensity
7.3.2 Kinetic Aspects
7.3.3 Inactivation of Enzymes
7.3.4 Thermobacteriology
7.4 Methods of Heating
7.4.1 Considerations
7.4.2 Equipment
7.4.3 Heat Regeneration
7.4.4 Control
Suggested Literature
Chapter 8
Centrifugation
8.1 Cream Separation
8.2 Removal of Particles
Suggested Literature
Chapter 9
Homogenization
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Operation of the Homogenizer
9.3 Effects of Turbulence
9.4 Factors Affecting Fat Globule Size
9.5 Surface Layers
9.6 Colloidal Stability
9.7 Homogenization Clusters
9.8 Creaming
9.9 Other Effects of Homogenization
9.10 Other Ways of Working
Suggested Literature
Chapter 10
Concentration Processes
10.1 General Aspects
10.1.1 Concentration of Solutes
10.1.2 Water Activity
10.1.3 Changes Caused by Concentrating
10.1.4 The Glassy State
10.1.5 Reaction Rates
10.2 Evaporating
10.3 Drying: General Aspects
10.3.1 Objectives
10.3.2 Drying Methods
10.4 Spray Drying
10.4.1 Drier Configuration
10.4.2 Atomization
10.4.3 Change of State of the Drying Air
10.4.4 Changes of State of the Drying Droplets
10.4.5 Two-Stage Drying
Suggested Literature
Chapter 11
Cooling and Freezing
11.1 Cooling
11.2 Freezing
Suggested Literature
Chapter 12
Membrane Processes
12.1 General Aspects
12.1.1 Types of Processes
12.1.2 Efficiency
12.1.3 Technical Operation
12.2 Ultrafiltration
12.2.1 Composition of the Retentate
12.2.2 Permeate Flux
12.3 Reverse Osmosis
12.4 Desalting
Suggested Literature
Chapter 13
Lactic Fermentations
13.1 Lactic Acid Bacteria
13.1.1 Taxonomy
13.1.2 Metabolism
13.1.3 Genetics
13.1.4 Bacteriocins
13.2 Acid Production
13.3 Bacteriophages
13.3.1 Phage Composition and Structure
13.3.2 Phage Multiplication
13.3.3 Phage Resistance Mechanisms
13.3.4 Inactivation
13.4 Ecological Aspects
13.5 Starters
13.5.1 Composition
13.5.2 Properties
13.5.3 Shifts in Flora
13.5.4 Traditional Starter Manufacture
13.5.5 Modern Starter Manufacture
Suggested Literature
Chapter 14 Fouling and Sanitizing
14.1 Deposit Formation
14.2 Cleaning
14.3 Disinfection
Suggested Literature
Chapter 15 Packaging
15.1 Distribution Systems
15.2 Packaging Materials
15.3 Filling Operation
Suggested Literature
Part III
Products
Chapter 16 Milk for Liquid Consumption
16.1 Pasteurized Milk
16.1.1 Manufacture
16.1.2 Shelf Life
16.1.3 Extended-Shelf-Life Milk
16.2 Sterilized Milk
16.2.1 Description
16.2.2 Methods of Manufacture
16.2.3 Shelf Life
16.3 Reconstituted Milks
16.4 Flavor
16.5 Nutritive Value
16.5.1 Modification of Composition
16.5.2 Loss of Nutrients
16.6 Infant Formulas
16.6.1 Human Milk
16.6.2 Formula Composition and Manufacture
Suggested Literature
Chapter 17 Cream Products
17.1 Sterilized Cream
17.1.1 Manufacture
17.1.2 Heat Stability
17.1.3 Stability in Coffee
17.1.4 Clustering
17.2 Whipping Cream
17.2.1 Desirable Properties
17.2.2 Manufacture
17.2.3 The Whipping Process
17.3 Ice Cream
17.3.1 Manufacture
17.3.2 Physical Structure: Formation and Stability
17.3.3 Role of the Various Components
Suggested Literature
Chapter 18 Butter
18.1 Description
18.2 Manufacture
18.2.1 Processing Scheme
18.2.2 The Churning Process
18.2.3 Working
18.3 Properties
18.3.1 Microstructure
18.3.2 Consistency
18.3.3 Cold Storage Defects
18.4 Cultured Butter from Sweet Cream
18.5 High-Fat Products
18.5.1 Anhydrous Milk Fat
18.5.2 Modification of Milk Fat
18.5.3 Recombined Butter
18.5.4 Low-Fat Butter Products
Suggested Literature
Chapter 19 Concentrated Milks
19.1 Evaporated Milk
19.1.1 Manufacture
19.1.2 Product Properties
19.1.3 Heat Stability
19.1.4 Creaming
19.1.5 Age Thickening and Gelation
19.2 Sweetened Condensed Milk
19.2.1 Manufacture
19.2.2 Keeping Quality
Suggested Literature
Chapter 20 Milk Powder
20.1 Objectives
20.2 Manufacture
20.3 Hygienic Aspects
20.3.1 Bacteria in the Original Milk
20.3.2 Growth during Manufacture
20.3.3 Incidental Contamination
20.3.4 Sampling and Checking
20.4 Powder Characteristics
20.4.1 The Particle
20.4.2 Extractable Fat
20.4.3 Free-Flowingness
20.4.4 Specific Volume
20.4.5 Dissolution
20.4.6 WPN Index
20.4.7 Flavor
20.4.8 Conclusions
20.5 Deterioration
20.6 Other Types of Milk Powder
Suggested Literature
Chapter 21 Protein Preparations
21.1 Manufacture
21.1.1 Casein
21.1.2 Whey Protein
21.1.3 Other Products
21.2 Functional Properties
21.2.1 Solution Properties
21.2.2 Gels
21.2.3 Emulsions
21.2.4 Foams
Suggested Literature
Chapter 22 Fermented Milks
22.1 General Aspects
22.2 Types of Fermented Milks
22.2.1 Mesophilic Fermentation
22.2.2 Thermophilic Fermentation
22.2.3 Yeast–Lactic Fermentation
22.2.4 Molds in Lactic Fermentation
22.3 Cultured Buttermilk
22.4 Yogurt
22.4.1 The Yogurt Bacteria
22.4.2 Manufacture
22.4.3 Physical Properties
22.4.4 Flavor Defects and Shelf Life
22.5 Nutritional Aspects
22.5.1 Composition
22.5.2 Nutritional Value
22.5.3 Probiotics
22.5.4 Prebiotics
Suggested Literature
Part IV
Cheese
Chapter 23 Principles of Cheese Making
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Essential Process Steps
23.3 Changes Occurring
Suggested Literature
Chapter 24 Cheese Manufacture
24.1 Milk Properties and Pretreatment
24.1.1 The Raw Milk
24.1.2 Milk Treatment
24.2 Starters
24.3 Enzyme-Induced Clotting
24.3.1 Enzymes Used
24.3.2 The Enzyme-Catalyzed Reaction
24.3.3 Aggregation
24.3.4 Gel Formation
24.3.5 The Renneting Time
24.3.6 Clotting of Heat-Treated Milk
24.4 Curd Making
24.4.1 Clotting
24.4.2 Accumulation of Various Components
24.4.3 Concentrating before Clotting
24.4.4 Syneresis
24.4.5 Acid Production and Washing
24.4.6 Separation of Curd and Whey
24.5 Shaping and Pressing
24.6 Salting
24.6.1 Mass Transport during Salting
24.6.2 Important Variables
24.6.3 Distribution of Salt and Water after Salting
24.7 Curing, Storage, and Handling
24.7.1 Temperature
24.7.2 Air Conditions
24.7.3 Rind Treatment
24.7.4 Packaging
24.8 Cheese Composition and Yield
24.8.1 Variables Involved
24.8.2 Yield
24.8.3 Standardizing the Milk
Suggested Literature
Chapter 25 Cheese Ripening and Properties
25.1 Lactic Fermentation
25.2 Enzyme Sources
25.3 Proteolysis
25.3.1 Methods of Characterization
25.3.2 Milk Proteinases
25.3.3 Clotting Enzymes
25.3.4 Enzymes of Lactic Acid Bacteria
25.3.5 Enzymes of Nonstarter Organisms
25.3.6 Interaction between Enzyme Systems
25.3.7 Ultrafiltration of Cheese Milk
25.4 Lipolysis
25.5 Development of Flavor
25.5.1 Description
25.5.2 Formation of Flavor Compounds
25.6 Development of Texture
25.6.1 Structure
25.6.2 Consistency
25.7 Accelerated Ripening
25.8 Nutritive Value and Safety
Suggested Literature
Chapter 26 Microbial Defects
26.1 Coliform Bacteria
26.2 Butyric Acid Bacteria
26.3 Lactobacilli
26.4 Heat-Resistant Streptococci
26.5 Propionic Acid Bacteria
26.6 Organisms on the Rind
26.7 Other Aspects
Suggested Literature
Chapter 27 Cheese Varieties
27.1 Overview
27.1.1 Variations in Manufacture
27.1.2 Types of Cheese
27.2 Fresh Cheese
27.2.1 Quarg
27.2.2 Cottage Cheese
27.3 Gouda-Type Cheeses
27.3.1 Manufacture
27.3.2 Properties and Defects
27.4 Cheddar-Type Cheeses
27.4.1 Manufacture
27.4.2 Properties
27.5 Swiss and Pasta-Filata Types
27.5.1 Emmentaler
27.5.2 Mozzarella
27.6 Cheeses with a Specific Flora
27.6.1 Soft Cheese with Surface Flora
27.6.2 Blue-Veined Cheese
27.7 Processed Cheese
Suggested Literature
Part V
Appendix
Appendix A.1 Often-Used Symbols
A.2 Abbreviations
A.3 Conversion Factors
A.4 Physical Properties of Milk Fat
A.5 Amino Acid Composition of Milk Proteins
A.6 Amino Acid Sequences of Caseins
A.7 Some Properties of Lactose
A.8 Trace Elements in Cows’ Milk
A.9 Physical Properties of Milk and Milk Products
A.10 Mass Density and Viscosity of Some Milk
Fractions
A.11 Heat Transfer
A.12 Data on Some Cheese Varieties