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PRINCIPLS OF FOOD TECHNOLOGY
Contents
Acknowledgements
Glossary
List of symbols
List of acronyms
Introduction
The food industry today
About this book
Note on the second edition
PART I BASIC PRINCIPLES
1
Properties of foods and processing theory
1
Density and specific
gravity
Viscosity
Surface activity
Rheology and texture
Material transfer
Fluid flow
Fluid flow through fluidised beds
Heat transfer
Energy balances
Mechanisms of heat transfer
Sources of heat and methods of application to foods
Energy conservation
Effect of heat on micro-organisms
Effect of heat on nutritional and sensory characteristics
Water activity
Effect of a on foods
Effects of processing on sensory characteristics of foods
Texture
Taste, flavour and aroma
Colour
Effects of processing on nutritional properties
Food safety, good manufacturing practice and quality assurance
HACCP
Hurdle technology
Acknowledgements
.
References
.
2 .Process control
Automatic control
Sensors
Controllers
Computer-based systems
Programmable logic controllers (PLCs)
.
Types of control systems
Software developments
Neural networks
Acknowledgements
References
PART II
AMBIENT-TEMPERATURE PROCESSING
3. Raw material preparation
Cleaning
Wet cleaning
.
Dry cleaning
Removing contaminants and foreign bodies
Sorting
Shape and size sorting
Colour sorting
Weight sorting
Grading
Peeling
Flash steam peeling
Knife peeling
Abrasion peeling
Caustic peeling
Flame peeling
Acknowledgements
References
4. Size reduction
Size reduction of solid foods
Theory
Equipment
Effect on foods
Size reduction in liquid foods (emulsification and homogenisation)
Theory
Equipment
Effect on foods
Acknowledgements
References
5 .Mixing and forming
Mixing
Theory of solids mixing
Theory of liquids mixing
Equipment
Effect on foods
Forming
Bread moulders
Pie and biscuit formers
Confectionery moulders
Acknowledgements
References
6 .Separation and concentration of food components
Centrifugation
Theory
Equipment
Filtration
Theory
Equipment
Expression
Theory
Equipment
Extraction using solvents
Theory
Equipment
Membrane concentration (hyperfiltration and ultrafiltration)
Theory
.
Equipment
Effect on foods
Acknowledgements
References
7. Fermentation and enzyme technology
Fermentation
Theory
Types of food fermentations
Equipment
Effect on foods
Enzyme technology
Enzyme production from micro-organisms
Application of enzymes in food processing
Acknowledgements
References
8. Irradiation
Theory
Equipment
Measurement of radiation dose
Dose distribution
Effect on micro-organisms
Applications
Sterilisation (or ‘radappertisation’)
Reduction of pathogens (or ‘radicidation’)
Prolonging shelf life (or ‘radurisation)
Control of ripening
Disinfestation
Inhibition of sprouting
Effect on foods
Induced radioactivity
Radiolytic products
Nutritional and sensory value
Effect on packaging
Detection of irradiated foods
Physical methods
Chemical methods
Biological methods
Acknowledgement
References
9. Processing using electric fields, high hydrostatic pressure, light or
Ultrasound
Pulsed electric field processing
Theory
Equipment
High pressure processing
Theory
Processing and equipment
Effect on micro-organisms, enzymes and food components
Processing using pulsed light
Theory
Equipment and operation
Effect on micro-organisms and foods
Processing using ultrasound
Theory
Application to processing
Other methods
References
PART III
PROCESSING BY APPLICATION OF HEAT
A. Heat processing using steam or water
10. Blanching
Theory
Equipment
Steam blanchers
Hot-water blanchers
Effect on foods
Nutrients
Colour and flavor
Texture
Acknowledgement
References
11. Pasteurisation
Theory
Equipment
Pasteurisation of packaged foods
Pasteurisation of unpackaged liquids
Effect on foods
Colour, flavour and aroma
Vitamin loss
Acknowledgements
References
12.. Heat sterilization
In-container sterilisation
Theory
Retorting (heat processing)
Equipment
Ultra high-temperature (UHT)/aseptic processes
Theory
Processing
Equipment
Effect on foods
Colour
Flavour and aroma
Texture or viscosity
Nutritive value
Acknowledgements
References
13. Evaporation and distillation
Evaporation
Theory
Equipment
Effect on foods
Distillation
Acknowledgements
References
14. Extrusion
Theory
Rheological properties of the food
Operating characteristics
Equipment
Single-screw extruders
Twin-screw extruders
Ancillary equipment
Applications
Cold extrusion
Extrusion cooking
Effect on foods
Sensory characteristics
Nutritional value
Acknowledgements
References
B. Heat processing using hot air
15. Dehydration
Theory
Drying using heated air
Drying using heated surfaces
Equipment
Hot-air driers
Heated-surface (or contact) driers
Effect on foods
Texture
Flavour and aroma
Colour
Nutritional value
Rehydration
Acknowledgements
References
16. Baking and roasting
Theory
Equipment
Direct heating ovens
Indirect heating ovens
Batch ovens
Continuous and semi-continuous ovens
Effect on foods
Texture
Flavour, aroma and colour
Nutritional value
Acknowledgements
References
C Heat processing using hot oils
17Frying
Theory
Shallow (or contact) frying
Deep-fat frying
Equipment
Effect on foods
Effect of heat on oil
Effect of heat on fried foods
Acknowledgements
References
D. Heat processing by direct and radiated energy
18. Dielectric, ohmic and infrared heating
Dielectric heating
Theory
Equipment
Applications
Effect on foods
Ohmic heating
Theory
Equipment and applications
Infrared heating
Theory
Equipment
Effect on foods
Acknowledgements
References
PART IV .PROCESSING BY THE REMOVAL OF HEAT
19. Chilling
Theory
Fresh foods
Processed foods
Cook
–
chill systems
Equipment
Mechanical refrigerators
Cryogenic chilling
Chill storage
Control of storage conditions
Effect on foods
Acknowledgements
References
20. Controlled- or modified-atmosphere storage and packaging
Modified- and controlled-atmosphere storage (MAS and CAS)
Modified-atmosphere packaging
MAP for fresh foods
MAP for processed foods
Packaging materials for MAP
Active packaging systems
Acknowledgement
References
21 Freezing
Theory
Ice crystal formation
Solute concentration
Volume changes
Calculation of freezing time
Equipment
Cooled-air freezers
Cooled-liquid freezers
ooled-surface freezers
Cryogenic freezers
Changes in foods
Effect of freezing
Effects of frozen storage
Thawing
Acknowledgements
References
22. Freeze drying and freeze concentration
Freeze drying (lyophilisation)
Theory
Equipment
Effect on foods
Freeze concentration
Theory
Equipment
Acknowledgements
References
PART V. POST-PROCESSING OPERATIONS
23. Coating or enrobing
Coating materials
Batters, powders and breadcrumbs
Chocolate and compound coatings
Enrobers
Dusting or breading
Pan coating
Hard coatings
Soft coatings
Chocolate coating
Acknowledgements
References
24. Packaging
Theory
Light
Heat
Moisture and gases
Micro-organisms, insects, animals and soils
Mechanical strength
Types of packaging materials
Textiles and wood
Metal
Glass
Flexible films
Rigid and semi-rigid plastic containers
Paper and board
Combined packaging systems
Active packaging technologies
Printing
Bar codes and other markings
Interactions between packaging and foods
Environmental considerations
Packaging costs
Manufacture of packaging materials
Distribution of packaging materials and ingredients for food
production
Distribution to retailers and consumers
Consumer recycling
Acknowledgements
References
25. Filling and sealing of containers
Rigid and semi-rigid containers
Filling
Sealing
Flexible containers
Types of sealer
Form
–
fill
–
seal (FFS) equipment
Form
–
Fill seal (FFS) equipment
Tamper-evident packaging
Labelling
Checkweighing
Metal detection
Acknowledgements
References
26. Materials handling, storage and distribution
Materials handling
Handling equipment for raw materials and ingredients
Handling equipment for processing
Waste management and disposal
Storage
Distribution
Acknowledgements
References
Appendices
A Vitamins in foods
B Nutritional and functional roles of minerals in foods
C EEC permitted food additives
D Units and dimensions
.